Narrative insights into the crucifixion of Jesus in Luke

Narrative insights into the crucifixion of Jesus in Luke

Carrie L. Lewis
In the crucifixion account, Luke 23: 33-43, Luke tells the story of a first-century man from Nazareth through whom God has chosen to make known the power of God to establish God's rule over the world and to call into question the power of the earthly rulers, both religious and political. Who really has power in this world? How is that power manifested? Do the rulers of the world have power over my life? Can I trust this Jesus who is telling me that the power of God is greater?

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By the time the first hearers encountered the story of the crucifixion, they had traveled a long road with Jesus, a road that brought them to Jerusalem, where earthly power, both religious and political, was centered, a road that led to Jesus' arrest, sentencing, and now his crucifixion on the hill called the Skull. Along that road, they had "witnessed" Jesus calling disciples to follow him, breaking the laws of the Sabbath in front of the religious officials by working and healing on the Sabbath, performing miracles among the people of Israel and the Gentiles, and hearing Jesus preach, teach, and proclaim the coming of the kingdom of God. Now they stand at the foot of the cross, seeing Jesus hanging there between two criminals, and wonder how all that had been said and done before could be true. Has the power of the world finally overcome the power of God? Is Jesus really the anointed one?

The answer to these questions begins to be revealed in the episode of the crucifixion through the most unlikely of sources: the soldiers and the evildoers who surround Jesus. Although they do not know that they are speaking the truth and do not intend to be speaking the truth, the truth about Jesus' identity is ironically revealed in the voices of these characters.

In his narrative Luke shows that, through the crucifixion of Jesus, God turns the human understanding of power on its head. For Luke, the crucifixion of Jesus is not a payment for people's sins. He omits Mark's famous quotation "For the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for many" (10:45). Rather, Jesus' healings and offers of forgiveness are a proclamation of God's reign and God's comprehensive saving purpose. (1) Salvation is restoration of God's people through the forgiveness of sins. (2) Jesus' death was the opportunity though which God's authority would be manifest.

Through Jesus' ability to forgive and offer salvation, even at the time when Jesus appears to be powerless, Luke shows us that in the midst of apparent vulnerability and lack of power God continues to exercise authority in the world through Jesus.

The question of forgiveness

For whom is Jesus asking for giveness? As hearers enter this scene they are told that Jesus is crucified with two evildoers, one on his right and one on his left. Jesus takes the opportunity on the cross to ask God to forgive those who are executing him because they do not know what they are doing. Is he asking forgiveness for the Jewish leaders who have asked for his crucifixion? for the Roman soldiers who have carried out the death sentence? for the crowd who surrounds him but does not know what to say about the events that have transpired?

Jesus has taught forgiveness and offered forgiveness throughout the journey of this story. In fact, it was forgiveness that first caused the Pharisees to question who Jesus was: "Who can forgive sins but God alone?" (5:21). Jesus had taught the disciples that if another disciple sinned against them they must forgive that disciple if that disciple repented, and if that disciple sinned seven times and repented seven times the disciples were to forgive seven times (17:34). At the crucifixion, however, Jesus asks God to forgive people when there is no sign of repentance. Those who are crucifying Jesus show no faith in Jesus, which has rendered forgiveness for others (5:20; 7:47), and they are definitely not showing any remorse for what they are doing.

Forgiveness for the crowd. It is precisely because of the ignorance of the people that Jesus asks God for forgiveness. If the people had known who Jesus was, they would have repented. However, they neither heeded John's teaching to bear fruits worthy of repentance (3:8) nor understood that Jesus was the one of whom John had spoken when he said "I baptize you with water; but one who is more powerful than I is coming; I am not worthy to untie the thong of his sandals. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. His winnowing fork is in his hand, to clear his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his granary; but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire" (3:16-17).

Because they did not understand this teaching or who Jesus was, Jesus had to ask for their forgiveness. In the book of Acts, the apostles continue to preach and teach those whom Jesus classified as ignorant. The ignorant are given opportunities to see how God used the crucifixion to further God's plan, to repent, and to turn to God (Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26), much like the remorse that the crowd who viewed the crucifixion expressed as "they returned home, beating their breasts" (23:48).

The crowd does not know what to think at this point. Luke portrays them as unsure of what is happening before them as they stand in silence watching the one who they thought came with the power to heal them and save them but who now hangs on the cross under the judgment of the worldly rulers. Jesus has been shown the greatest of dishonor. Because Jesus is their leader and has been dishonored in this way, his followers also have been dishonored. (3) The crowd still supports their leader, but, faced with the unexpected, has fallen silent.

Forgiveness for the Jewish leaders. The Jewish leaders understand their job to be preserving and defending God's honor. In their attempt to fulfill this duty, however, they have been blinded to an understanding of what their true role is and who Jesus is. Luke's portrayal of the ignorance of the Jewish leaders runs contrary to the general judgment by the New Testament writers that there was deliberate blindness and malevolence on the part of the Jewish authorities involved in the crucifixion. (4) When Jesus claims to have power to forgive sins (5:21), they fear that Jesus is lessening God's power, thus dishonoring God. When Jesus and the disciples gather grain on the Sabbath (6:1-5), and when Jesus heals on the Sabbath (6:6-11), these actions are seen as a threat to the power of God, as breaking God's laws and showing dishonor to God. The rulers are in awe of Jesus (5:26), some amazed by what he is doing but others waiting to catch him in something that he is saying (11:53-54). As time goes on and Jesus continues to teach and to heal, the Pharisees and the scribes do not recognize Jesus' revelation of God's power, and they grumble even more about what he is doing (15:2). This view of the ignorance of the Jewish authorities who are involved in the crucifixion is echoed by Peter in Acts 3:17.

Forgiveness for the Roman soldiers. Whereas the Jewish leaders lack understanding, the Roman soldiers lack knowledge. They have not had the opportunity to hear the gospel and do not have a frame of reference to understand who this is that they are executing. They only know what others are claiming, and they join with those others in the ignorant ridicule of Jesus. Jesus does not show vindictiveness toward any of these persons. Rather Jesus asks God not to judge them but to forgive them for not knowing that this is God's action. (5)

Why forgiveness now? In his Sermon on the Plain, Jesus teaches, "If anyone strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also; and from anyone who takes away your coat do not withhold even your shirt" (6:29). He goes on to say, "But love your enemy, do good and lend, expecting nothing in return" (6:35). Jesus is living out what he has taught. Although he has been wrongly accused, he does not fight back but receives the beating of his enemies. Throughout Luke's account of Jesus' ministry. "Jesus showed tenderness to the stranger (the widow of Nain) and praised the mercy shown to the Prodigal Son and to the man beset by thieves on the road to Jericho; it is not surprising then that in his passion Jesus shows forgiveness to those who crucified him." (6)

Reactions to the crucifixion

The hearer comes into contact with three groups of people who have been important to Luke's story: the crowd, the Jewish leaders, and the Roman soldiers. Each of these groups has met Jesus at a different point on his journey and come to a different understanding of who Jesus is and why he is being executed. They have different reactions as they stand at the foot of the cross.

Reaction of the crowd. The crowd has been encountered numerous times throughout the story. Although the crowds may not be the same people in all instances, their role is the same. They offer an audience for the teachings of John, Jesus, and the disciples. The hearer first meets the crowd at the Jordan with John the Baptist. The crowd has come to John to be baptized, and they ask him what they need to do to bear good fruit (3:10). John tells them to share their clothing and food with those who have none (3:11). He also tells them that there is one who is greater who is coming after him (3:16-17). When Jesus begins his public ministry, many of those who had been following John begin to follow Jesus, the one who is greater. The crowds continue to follow Jesus throughout the story, seeking him, desiring his healing and acts of exorcism. They are amazed by the power that Jesus exercises, and they continue to seek him out throughout his journey to Jerusalem in order that he might continue to perform these miraculous works to save their loved ones. People, such as those who witnessed Jesus' raising of the son of the widow at Nain, praised God, declaring Jesus a great prophet and saying, "God has looked favorably on his people!" (7:16). And again, when the blind beggar receives his sight, he praises God, as do all those around him (18:35-43).

When Jesus declares judgment upon Israel in the synagogue at Nazareth (4:28), the crowds rise against him and seek his death. The people enjoy the power that heals them, but some are threatened by the power that judges them. They do not understand who Jesus is as an agent of God or that it is by God's power and authority that Jesus is accomplishing these miracles. John the Baptist sends two of his disciples to ask Jesus if he is the one who is to come (7:18-35). The people also try to make sense of who Jesus is by claiming that Jesus is John the Baptist resurrected, an appearance of Elijah, or a prophet of old that has arisen (9:7-9).

This confusion among the crowd is apparent at Jesus' trial and crucifixion. This crowd, who has been following Jesus, seeking his healing, and hindering the efforts of Jesus' enemies to do away with him earlier (19:47-48; 20:19; 21:38; 22:2, 6), cries out for Jesus' crucifixion, which the Jewish leaders had plotted (23:13, 18, 23-26). (7) At the crucifixion, the crowd seems to be playing a neutral role.

The crowd simply stands and watches what is going on around them. They are not ridiculing Jesus or defending him. They witness Jesus' death, but they do not mock him. Yet, as followers of this teacher, they are no longer honoring Jesus but are shaming him by their silence. Luke only mentions the passivity of the crowd, putting no value judgment on it. However, having witnessed Jesus' death and heard the centurion's declaration of Jesus as a righteous man (23:47), this crowd realizes what has actually happened before their eyes, and they are prompted to express remorse: "And when all the crowds who had gathered there for this spectacle saw what had taken place, they returned home, beating their breasts" (23:48). (8) They express grief at the death of Jesus and perhaps also at the death of the hopes that they had had in him. This image of beating the breast takes the hearer back to Jesus' parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector (18:9-14). In this story, the tax collector beats his breast in remorse for what he has done, begging that God be merciful to him, a sinner. So the hearer understands that the crowds are not only expressing their grief but also showing remorse for their actions in contributing to the crucifixion and for their inaction, silence, and dishonor of their teacher and leader.

As listeners, we can sympathize with the crowd. We have been awed by Jesus' actions throughout Luke's story. We have stood before the cross feeling helpless, unable to understand how this could be happening if Jesus is, in fact, the Messiah. At the conclusion of this episode, we turn away from the cross, grieving the death of the one in whom we had such hope.

Reaction of the Jewish leaders. The Jewish leaders include the chief priest, the Pharisees, and those who have consistently opposed Jesus. Now, with method and opportunity joined with motive, they have plotted for Jesus' death. (9) The rulers are no longer threatened by Jesus' words or actions that they believed were showing dishonor to God (5:21; 6:1-11), and they are no longer afraid of Jesus' followers (22:2). They are sure that the power that they wield as rulers has won the battle against this one who blasphemes. Throughout the journey, the hearer witnesses the jealousy and rage that the rulers have had for Jesus. The rulers have felt threatened by him and by his ability to save, to forgive, and to cast out demons, and they have been offended by his choice to work, heal, and gather food on the Sabbath and to break other laws of impurity. In their opinion, Jesus is threatening God's honor and defying their role as defenders of that honor.

Although Jesus sits at table with Pharisees at various times throughout the journey, teaching and preaching, it is the powerful whom he is rebuking. When he eats with the Pharisees and the lawyers, he rebukes them for their practices, for neglecting God's love, for ignoring God's wisdom, and for hindering those who were entering into God's wisdom (11:37-54). The Pharisees and lawyers became hostile toward Jesus because of his rebuke, and now they see Jesus' crucifixion as their chance to scoff at him in return.

When Jesus appears to be powerless and completely vulnerable the leaders take the opportunity to mock ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) him. This word is used only in Luke's Gospel, only twice, and only with reference to what was said by the Pharisees and the rulers to Jesus--once when Jesus speaks out against their improper use of power and money (16:14), and again here (23:35). It literally means to turn one's nose up at. Previously, the leaders had not felt the freedom to mock Jesus in public because of the crowds that surrounded him, and they had worked in secret to find a way to gain some authority over him (22:2). Now that Jesus is in a place of vulnerability, these leaders are able to "turn their noses up at" Jesus, doing what they see as their duty to defend God's honor. (10) In mocking Jesus, the rulers are shaming him, the one who has been honored by the people and has been putting the rulers to shame. This is their chance to turn the tables, to dishonor Jesus as they believe Jesus has dishonored them, and tear Jesus down in the ultimate act of shame, crucifixion outside of the city.

Specifically, the rulers use the healing acts of Jesus against him by calling on him to save himself as he saved others (23:35). When Jesus is rejected in Nazareth, he says, "Doubtless you will quote to me this proverb, 'Doctor, cure yourself!'" (4:23). Here, at the cross, the rulers are doing just that. They call out sarcastically, "Others he has saved. Let him save himself" (23:35). If Jesus truly is the anointed one, the one chosen by God, should he not be able to save himself? The hearer begins to think that maybe this is how Jesus will conquer the powers of earth.

Reaction of the Roman soldiers. The soldiers standing in front of the cross represent the Roman government, and they have been asked to crucify this man whom people have claimed to be the king of the Jews (23:3). When Jesus was on trial, the soldiers ridiculed Jesus because of this claim (23:11).

These soldiers also mark the end of the hopes of the Jewish people that Jesus would be the one to overthrow the Roman government and gain power for the people of Israel once again. When Jesus was presented as a baby at the temple, Simeon declared God's saving purpose through Jesus:

Master, now you are dismissing your servant in peace,
according to your word;
for my eyes have seen your salvation,
which you have prepared in the presence of all peoples,
a light for revelation to the Gentiles
and for glory to your people Israel.
(2:29-32)
Because of the teachings and miracles of Jesus throughout his life, people believed that Jesus must be one chosen by God to free them from Roman rule. Thus, shortly before Jesus' crucifixion, he was welcomed into Jerusalem as royalty. People lined up on the road as Jesus rode in on a colt, and they lay their cloaks on the road before Jesus as they would for a royal procession. The people cried out: "Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the Lord! Peace in heaven, and glory in the highest heaven!" (19:38) But now, as Jesus is being crucified, their hope that he will rule as king is being shattered by these Roman soldiers. This one who was to gain power over Rome is being shamed in the most significant way by the soldiers.

The soldiers cast lots for Jesus' clothing, leaving Jesus to hang naked, the most shameful of conditions, on the cross. (11) The soldiers then begin to mock Jesus in both action and word. They offer him sour wine to mock his royalty, and, like the religious leaders, call to him, "If you are the king of the Judeans, save yourself!" These outsiders are mocking Jesus by calling him a king. (12)

The charge for which Jesus was killed was that he opposed Roman rule by establishing himself as king over the Jews. (13) This understanding of regal kingship takes the hearer back to the examination by Pilate (23:3), who asks if Jesus is the king of the Judeans. It is then repeated on the sign that is hung over Jesus' head on the cross (23:38). (14) It appears to the soldiers that this one who was to have such power over them has no such power. The soldiers have been given the authority to remove this problem from their midst, and in this action they are also showing the Jewish people that, as Roman soldiers, they are the ones who truly have the power and the authority. This increases the tension within the hearer who struggles with the abuse of authority by the Roman soldiers and with the hearer's own desire for Jesus to save himself in this critical hour.

Reaction of the first evildoer. The tension continues to build as one of the criminals being crucified with Jesus derides him as well. "Are you not the anointed one? Save yourself and us!" Because he calls Jesus "the anointed one," it can be inferred that he is of Jewish descent. But, because of the sarcastic tone with which he speaks to Jesus, the hearer understands that the evildoer does not really believe that Jesus is the anointed one. Because of this callous disrespect for Jesus, Luke remarks that this evildoer is blaspheming Jesus. (15)

The question of salvation

Can Jesus save his own life? The unifying factor among the Jewish leaders, the Roman soldiers, and the first evildoer is that they are challenging Jesus' power and authority by taunting him to come down from the cross. Luke makes it clear through their language that these people do not believe that Jesus can actually come down or cause anyone else to do so. Through this use of language, Luke sets the hearer up for the greatest action of God. Because the hearer does not yet know what this action of God will be, the sarcastic attitude seems to contradict the expectations of Jesus as Savior heard in the first chapters of Luke. There the angel Gabriel announces to Mary that "'[Jesus] will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High, and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his ancestor David. He will reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there will be no end'" (1:32-33). But here, on the cross, Jesus is losing his life.

"The paradox revolves around the fact that if Jesus would have saved his life, he would have indeed lost his life." (16) For in telling his disciples what becoming his followers would entail, Jesus said to them that "those who want to save their life will lose it, and those who lose their life for my sake will save it" (9:24). In Luke's view, it is precisely the fact that Jesus cannot save himself that makes him "The Anointed One," the "King of the Judeans." For Luke, "the proof that Jesus is God's Christ lies precisely in his rejection and death." (17) Luke repeatedly states that it is necessary for the Son of Man to die (9:22, 17:25, 24:7), but for Luke what is most important is to identify Jesus as "The Anointed One" as was claimed at the announcement of Jesus to Mary (1:31-33, 35). Therefore, Luke argues that "the Christ must suffer (24:46; Acts 3:18; 4:25-28; 26:23), and this is according to God's providence, "according to the Scriptures" (Luke 24:26-27, 45-47; Acts 18:28). According to Jerome Neyrey's understanding of Luke, "Jesus cannot escape death since he is holy and appointed. If he is truly God's Christ, he cannot save himself." Even if Christ cannot save himself, "it is unthinkable that the Christ is not saved." God saves Jesus ultimately by raising him from the dead. "The person whom God vindicated was God's designated 'Leader and Savior' (Acts 5:31). Jesus' heralded role as 'Savior of Israel' (Luke 2:11) is vindicated by God's saving him." Jesus could not be the Savior for others had God not saved him. "His holiness and obedience, which constitute him as God's Christ, will ultimately be salvific for himself in his resurrection and will constitute him as Savior of others." (18)

The irony of the salvation challenge. The words of the Jewish leaders, the Roman soldiers, and the first evildoer, although spoken sarcastically in an attempt to shame Jesus, prove to be true. Jesus has saved others, and the hearer soon will find that Jesus saves the evildoer who repents. As God's chosen one, Jesus has the power to heal and rescue others, and he does so as is evidenced throughout Luke's narrative of Jesus. Jesus is proved to be the Christ only if he does not save himself, and yet by not saving himself he will in fact save others. (19)

The rebuke of the second evildoer. The second criminal reframes what the reality of the situation is. Jesus has done nothing wrong, and the second evildoer recognizes this. He also recognizes that he and the evildoer who rebuked Jesus are receiving what they deserve based on their action, or they are receiving their "just" sentence ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). This idea comes back to the hearer a few verses later when the centurion offers another confession of Jesus' innocence as he declares Jesus' righteousness ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) (23:47).

The promise of paradise

The request for remembrance. The second criminal does not ask to be saved from death. He also does not address Jesus by a title or function as the others had. Instead, he calls Jesus by name, an action of sincerity and intimacy, "an address used elsewhere in the Gospels in a friendly manner only by the blind beggar of Jericho." (20) He asks Jesus to remember him when Jesus comes into his kingdom. To "remember" ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]), according to Jewish tradition, was something that was asked of God on behalf of the dead. Many funerary inscriptions ask for the dead to be "remembered" or to be placed with the righteous at judgment. (21)

With this understanding of "remember," this second evildoer may understand Jesus as being from God. He seems to understand that Jesus has power, even though he does not understand how that power will be manifest. He declares faith in Jesus even if Jesus does not perform a great act of earthly salvation at that moment. He declares Jesus innocent, demonstrates the fact that Jesus has power to save, and connects power to Jesus' future kingdom in spite of his shameful death on the cross. Once again, it is through an outcast that believers are shown unique insight. (22) "Some saw Jesus raise the dead, and did not believe. The [evildoer] sees Him being put to death, and yet believes." (23)

Jesus responds to the plea for remembrance. Although this evildoer has done something deserving of death, Jesus promises that he will find a place with him "today" in paradise. In contrast to having to ask God for forgiveness of those who have not repented, Jesus is able to forgive this one who has repented. "In the midst of [Jesus'] suffering unto death we hear a personal and transformative promise." (24)

When is "today"? The use of time in Luke's narrative is very important. In many cases, Luke takes great pains to give us a time of reference for when things are occurring, especially with relation to who is in governmental and religious power (25) and where on the timeline of the Jewish calendar things are happening. (26) However, there is also a sense of immediacy that can be found in Luke. For example, the angels declare to the shepherds that "to you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is the Messiah, the Lord" (2:11). (27) In addition, Luke's use of the word "today" portrays the immediacy of God's actions through Jesus.

Throughout the story, when Jesus declares a work of God, what Jesus says happens in the very act of speaking. For example, when Jesus reads from Isaiah, he sits to teach the people and says, "Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing" (4:21). In Jesus' reading of the scripture, Jesus was anointed to bring good news to the poor and to release captives. Again, when Jesus visits Zacchaeus, Jesus proclaims, "Today salvation has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham" (19:9-10).

But it is not only for the living that salvation is granted in the here and now. In Judaism, deliverance will come at the consummation of God's reign. (28) However, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) the hearer comes to know that the dead also have immediate rewards and punishments. Lazarus is immediately taken to Abraham's bosom upon his death, and the rich man is immediately sent to Hades to be tortured. The evildoer had no expectation of a reward to be given that day but rather at the time of judgment in the parousia. Because of the evildoer's confession of faith in the face of imminent death, Jesus granted him a place of honor that he would receive that same day. So, for Luke, salvation is not simply a radically future experience but an experience to be had in the present. (29)

Where is paradise? The word paradise, or garden, came into Greek from Persia and initially had no eschatological context. Later it came to have the connotation of an eschatological garden or the "abode of the righteous." (30) Thus Jesus is granting this evildoer precisely what he had asked for, to be with the righteous, including Jesus, when he came into his kingdom. The twist comes in that Jesus grants that request today. In confessing Jesus as the righteous king, this evildoer experiences victory in the midst of his greatest trial and immediate deliverance through this king. Herein lies the ultimate irony: the one who showed sincerity and hope in his confession not of salvation in the here and now but of the remembrance of Jesus in the future is the one who receives the reward of salvation after Jesus' death. (31)

This declaration of Jesus also gives the hearer hope. The one who could not save himself but could only be saved by God has the power to save even to his dying breath. Jesus is the one who holds the power to save, even when it looks like all of his power has been revoked.

The hearer is left with hope

At the end of this episode, the hearer is still hoping that Jesus will find a way to get down from his cross. Jesus does not deserve to die. And yet, in this episode, the criminal, who may never have known Jesus before that very moment, has shown faith in him. He has recognized Jesus as the righteous one and sincerely made a difficult request--for an eternal reward, being remembered in Jesus' kingdom, salvation. Jesus sees the sincere repentance of this evildoer and shows compassion to him, promising him a place in paradise. The hearer is able to relate to this evildoer, the one who deserves the sentence that Jesus is suffering but who realizes his evil doings and asks to be remembered. The hearer can then sincerely turn to Jesus as the evildoer did, repent, and ask to be remembered in Jesus' kingdom. Jesus promises to be with that evildoer and with us, and in that promise there is hope--the hope revealed to us in Jesus' resurrection in the final chapter of Luke's Gospel.

The apparent vulnerability of Jesus on the cross calls into question how this one whom God sent can possibly save the people. It seems that the powers of the world have overtaken the powers of God. And yet, this episode offers hope. Jesus asks for forgiveness for those who have crucified him and shows that he still has power in the last, painful moments of his earthly life by offering the promise of paradise to the evildoer. Jesus did not lose hope but trusted in God even when it appeared that he was in a hopeless situation. All hearers, therefore, should not lose hope but trust in God. Jesus has made good on his promises, bringing good news to the poor and offering healing to those who are in need. In the moment of his greatest vulnerability, when those with earthly power show that they have the power to condemn Jesus to death, God saves Jesus, and through God's saving of Jesus offers salvation to others.

Carrie L. Lewis

Holy Trinity Lutheran Church

Newton, Iowa

pastorhtlc@iowatelecom.net

1. Robert Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts: A Literary Interpretation. Volume 1: The Gospel according to Luke (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 89.

2. Luke Timothy Johnson, The Gospel of Luke, Sacra Pagina, ed. Daniel J. Harrington, S.J. (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1991), 380.

3. Bruce J. Malina and Jerome H. Neyrey, "Honor and Shame in Luke-Acts: Pivotal Values in the Mediterranean World," in The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome H. Neyrey (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 60-61.

4. Raymond E. Brown, "The Passion according to Luke," Worship 60 (January 1986): 7.

5. Darrell Bock, Luke, Volume 2 (Grand Rapids: Baker Exegetical Commentary, 1995), 1849-50.

6. Brown, "The Passion according to Luke," 3.

7. John T. Carroll, "Luke's Crucifixion Scene," in Reimaging the Death of the Lukan Jesus, ed. Dennis de Sylva (Frankfurt am Main: Anton Hain, 1990), 111.

8. Carroll, "Luke's Crucifixion Scene," 112.

9. Carroll, 111.

10. Bock, Luke, Volume 2, 1851-52.

11. Bock, Luke, Volume 2, 1850.

12. Bock, 1853.

13. Richard J. Cassidy, Jesus, Politics and Society: A Study of Luke's Gospel (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1978), 72.

14. Bock, 1853.

15. Bock, 1854.

16. Joan Mueller, Is Forgiveness Possible? (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1998), 12.

17. Jerome H. Neyrey, The Passion according to Luke: A Redaction Study of Luke's Soteriology (New York: Paulist, 1985), 141.

18. Neyrey, The Passion according to Luke, 141-42.

19. Neyrey, 142.

20. Brown, "The Passion according to Luke," 7.

21. Bock, Luke, Volume 2, 1856.

22. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel according to Luke. 2 vols. The Anchor Bible Commentary (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985), 2:343.

23. Bock, 1856.

24. John W. Ehman, "Luke 23:1-49," Interpretation 52 (January 1998): 75.

25. For example, "In the fifteenth year of the reign of Emperor Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, and Herod was ruler of Galilee, and his brother Philip ruler of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias ruler of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came to John son of Zechariah in the wilderness" (3:1-2).

26. For example, "After eight days had passed, it was time to circumcise the child" (2:21).

27. Other examples of immediacy in Luke can be found in 5:26; 13:21-33; 22:34-61.

28. Bock, Luke, Volume 2, 1856.

29. Neyrey, The Passion according to Luke, 138.

30. Bock, 1858.

31. Bock, 1858.

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